International Trade Law Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

International Trade Law - Assignment Example The hunting of seals in Canada in the adjoining waters of the Arctic Ocean is believed to have begun in the 16th century. Seal hunting for commercial purposes grew into an important trade in the 1980s decade in Canada. This mainly includes the Inuit group of people, the residents of Atlantic Canada and also North Canada. The United Nations in its Declaration on the â€Å"Rights of Indigenous Peoples† has recognized this seal hunting practice as a means of livelihood for the Canadian residents. According to an estimate in 2005, about 329,829 harp seals were killed by the indigenous people of Atlantic Canada and Quebec. They also produced $ 15.43 million worth of â€Å"exports of identifiable seal products†. The extent and importance of the seal hunting trade in Canada renders it very difficult for the Canadian authorities to pronounce an end to this practice. The European Union bans Seal Products Canada was supposed to attend a summit meeting with the European Union to discuss further prospects of trade between the two countries and open up new markets. On 16 September 2009, the European Parliament and the European Communities declared a Regulation (EC) No. 1007/2009 stating a prohibition in the import and sale of all seal products manufactured from the commercial hunting of seals.... eal hunts carried out in a traditional practice by the Inuits and other indigenous communities and byproducts from similar regulated hunts, would be allowed to trade in the European Union.2 The Canadian Government expressed its disappointment on the development and vowed to take the issue to the World Trade Organization (WTO).3 Canada was of the opinion that in the case the EU imposed a restriction on seal products made out of commercial hunting, the country should be exempted from it since Canada followed strict guidelines to ensure that the seal hunting methods in the country were humane and were sustainable in the long run. The Effects of Such a Regulation According to the European Commission, the trade exchanges between Canada and the European Union are worth around EUR 70 billion or $ 93 billion in a single year. If the Canada and the European Union agreed to expand their bilateral trade, this could generate an additional trade exchange worth EUR 20 billion. However, the EU Regu lation regarding the prohibition of the import and sale of seal related products from commercial hunting, in the EU markets could have serious implications for the bilateral trade between the two countries. Once the Regulation (EC) No. 1007/2009 comes into effect, the value of seal products imported by the EU from Canada will decrease drastically, as then only the seal products made out of legitimate hunting methods will only be permissible to enter the EU market. Therefore, Canada will be compelled to turn to other countries of the world for the export of its seal products, following the decline of the EU as one of its important importers in this trade 4 Canada’s Arguments On 2 November, 2009, Canada expressed its desire to engage in a consultation with the European Communities regarding

Fast Food Transforming American Society Essay Example for Free

Fast Food Transforming American Society Essay Fast food has grown to be a big part of American Society. According to Eric Schlosser, â€Å"Over the past few decades, fast food has infiltrated every nook and cranny of American Society† (3). In a sense, his statement about fast food is not too exaggerated. Today, we see fast food all over America, whether it is through television advertisements, billboards, and magazines. America has grown to be the number one fast food country in the world. The increase of fast food has resulted in good business for the fast food industry: â€Å"In 2000 Americans spent about $110 billion on fast food compared to $6 billion in 1970† (Schlosser). Why are Americans spending huge amounts of money on fast food? How has the fast food industry grown to become a huge influence on American society? Seyhan Sipahi states, â€Å"Recent global economical crisis†¦had a crippling effect on almost all financial sectors in many countries. Surprisingly, the fast food industry had not be adversely affected†¦Ã¢â‚¬  What is keeping the fast food industry alive? Could it be that more families are turning to fast food because recent economic crisis? The fast food industry has grown to be more efficient than when it first started. Making food selling more convenient, fast and for a cheap price has attracted customers. There are multiple ways the fast food industry has transformed American society and what it is to live in America. In this generation, more mothers are in the workforce than there were in the past. Since â€Å"Womens labor force participation is significantly higher today than it was in the 1970s, particularly among women with children† (Labor Force Participation of Women and Mothers, 2008, The Editors Desk) ever since then the rate has been going up. Now that both parents are away from home working it makes it harder for them to make home cooked meals. Due to the lack of home cooked meals, many Americans families have turned to fast food. According to Schlosser, â€Å"three generations ago more money was being spent on food in the United States to make meals at home† (3). Fast food has taken over the diet of many American families. It is more convenient to buy something that is near by, prepared fast, and is reasonably priced for its proportion. Another reason why people choose fast food is because frankly it is delicious. Nothing that is made at home can compare to something made at a fast food restaurant. It is hard to get sick of fast food because there are so many restaurants to choose from that each have their own tastes in foods. The largest class in America is the middle class. Since middle class makes up the majority of the American population it is reasonable to say these families with lower income tend to buy fast food more often. Fast food restaurants have grown to be more efficient in the way that they produce their meals. On â€Å"Dec. 12, 1948, when Richard and Maurice transformed their barbecue joint into the first McDonalds restaurant, focusing on speed, value and high volume. † (Hill). This helped build a kind of assembly line of workers, each worker in charge of one job. For example, in order to make a hamburger, one would be in charge of getting the buns, another in charge of putting the patty, another in charge of putting the lettuce and tomato, and on. In doing this, production of the food becomes much faster. Food being frozen before preparing it is another way that fast food restaurants have grown more efficiently. Schlosser gives an example with guacamole that is made in Mexico, frozen, and shipped to the restaurant (40). Many fast food restaurants do this with the products they serve, although their advertisements may say fresh. Drive-throughs and computerized cash registers have also helped fast food restaurants speed up time for their consumers. An example of how drive throughs are so successful is Victoria’s experience: Theres just one place that Victoria Vollaire stops every day. Its not the supermarket. Its not the ATM. Its the drive-thru. This costs her $400 a month right out the drive-thru window. I dont like getting out of the car, explains Vollaire, who lives in Ontario, Calif. , and works as a hotel guest service aide. More than half the money spent on fast food rolls in through the drive-thru lane. (Horovitz) Drive-throughs give restaurants the ability to take multiple orders and give convenience for customers that are in a hurry. People like the conscience of not even having to get out of there cars to get their food. Computerized cash registers with buttons for every order possible help to make orders quick and precise. These days it is not surprising to see a fast food restaurant almost at every corner in America. A study was made on how fast food restaurants cluster around schools in America. Steven Gortmaker, in charge of this study, states, â€Å"78% of schools had at least one fast food restaurant within 800 meters. Fast food restaurants tend to cluster near schools and offices because it is more convenient, with the idea to gain more business. Many fast food restaurants are close to places where children and adolescent are close by. They do this because these two age groups are the most targeted by the fast food industry (Fast Food Targeted Marketing). Another study, on a high school that sold fast food products concludes that fast food is 70% of all food sold at the school (Calderon. ) As the expansion of fast food companies continues to increase, more restaurants are seen closer together. Before, companies use to stay away from competition, but now they are clustered all over the place. It seems as though fast food restaurant expansion has forced them to cluster even to the extent of having fast food shopping centers. Fast food has greatly transformed popular culture in America. By looking at McDonalds as an example, McDonalds has far surpassed any other fast food chain in America and possibly the world. McDonalds has grown very close to many children: â€Å"A survey for American schoolchildren found that 96 percent could identify Ronald McDonald† (Schlosser). What makes fast food so popular in America? Many people appraise fast food industries for their products because they are delicious and affordable. Did affordability of fast food make it so popular? Fast food transforms popular culture in America mainly through advertising. Whether it is on television, sponsoring professional athletes, or even promoting events like the Olympics or the World Cup. It is said that â€Å"In 2009, teens saw 5 fast food ads each day† (Fast Food Targeted Marketing). The majority of the commercial on TV are based on fast food companies. Fast food has become a trend in American society, eating it is in the norms of society today. Fast food advertisement has a monkey, see monkey do effect on people. If people see famous celebrities on TV eating or promoting the fast food company, it encourages them to go. The constant selling of fast food causes higher demands in agricultural resources. According to Schlosser, â€Å"The fast food chains now stand atop a huge food-industrial complex, taking control of American Agriculture† (59). It is getting harder for farmers outside of this â€Å"food industrial complex† to find business. Many times farmers and cattle ranchers become hired hands for the agribusiness giants† (Schlosser). Although the giant agriculture business may seem powerful, it is still on the bottom of the fast food companies because they are what make their business. â€Å"The fast-food industry changed the nations retail economy, eliminating small businesses, encouraging the spread of chai ns and uniformity, fast food has transformed American agriculture† (Schlosser). Apart from agriculture fast food, companies have also influenced how cattle should be raised, killed, and made into ground beef. The influence of the fast food companies on slaughterhouses has made the work environment a dangerous place. These slaughterhouses sound dangerous for the workers as well as for those consuming the meat. Meatpacking as grown to be one of the most dangerous jobs in America (Gardner). There is a lot of equipment that is dangerous and can cause severe injuries to workers. According to Gardner, â€Å"at least 29. 3% of meat workers suffered injury or illness compared to 9. 7% for the rest of manufacturing†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Working Conditions in American Slaughterhouses: Worse than You Thought). Carl Karcher started his fast food business by buying one hot dog cart and then from there he bought another three hot dog carts in Los Angeles. Not too much time past before Karcher had some competition. Recently moved from New Hampshire, the McDonald brothers came to California to find jobs. They opened up a hamburger shop and became famous for their delicious hamburgers. The brothers strived in coming up with new ways to make more money until finally one day they closed down their shop. A few months later the McDonald brothers reopened their shop, with a bigger grill, and a whole new process to make hamburgers. They would divide the food preparations into tasks. This is what started the whole assembly line style to preparing fast food and has been implemented by many fast food restaurants ever since. Two groups that fast food companies look to for hiring are teenagers and illegal immigrants. Having these two types of groups as a workforce allows fast food companies to spend less money on hired hands and more on advertising and expanding (Schlosser. ) Having workers that are not looking for a long-term job lets fast food companies have fewer benefits for their workers. The wages for fast food employees is far too little in ratio to the work that is expected. Fast food companies hire teenagers because they can survive with low pay and most are dependent on their parents. The statistics from the ages, 16-20, alone makes up 25% of the fast food workforce (Food Services and Drinking Places). Immigrants, on the other hand, cannot complain if they get paid so little because they are illegal and will work under most circumstances. The expansion of fast food companies has created many jobs over the years. Out of all food services and drinking places, fast food companies make up 47% (Food Services and Drinking Places). In the past few decades, food-related illness has increased (Schlosser). The way food is processed has affected its quality. Many of the livestock used to produce that typical hamburger patty are mistreated. The most common sickness that the livestock catch is E Coli. In December 2006 â€Å"71 people became sick with E. coli after eating at Taco Bell restaurants in New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, and Delaware† (OShea). It is hard to know for sure what is in fast food because most of the time this side of the story is covered up. Aside from meats getting pathogens, artificial flavoring is another key aspect of many fast food products. Many fast food companies injected their products with artificial flavoring. McDonalds for example â€Å"infuses its fries and chicken sandwiches with essences that mimic beef tallow† (Tamminen). Does the food taste that bad that places like McDonalds has turn to artificial flavoring? Can the chemicals being put in fast food be harmful to humans? Although there maybe some companies using artificial flavors, there many other companies that live up to natural flavors. What is the future of fast food industry in America? Will the fast food industry just keep growing until one day it not only becomes a big part of American life but also other places around the world? Fast food companies are expanding at an increasing rate causing high demands for more food. At this rate, could it be possible that someday the fast food industry will control all of the food distribution in America? They practically do already because they are the greatest contributors in meats, corn, potatoes and more. What will be the future for fast food in America? At its grown rate, the fast food industry seems to be taking over many Americans highways. Having many fast food chains by highways makes it all most impossible to not run into a fast food restaurant. Will the constant expansion of fast food restaurants bring down the big grocery stores and replace them? America has grown accustom to convenience when it comes to food. What do other countries think when they see America? Should America be proud because it is the number one fast food country in the world? It is hard to say where fast food will take America in the future, but one thing is certain: fast food and America can never be separated.

Freedom Encroaching Technologies Essay -- FBIs Use of Privacy-Invadin

"Any society that would give up a little liberty to gain a little security will deserve neither and lose both." -- Benjamin Franklin INTRODUCTION: "The true danger is when liberty is nibbled away, for expedients, and by parts...the only thing necessary for evil to triumph is for good men to do nothing." -- Edmund Burke U.S. has enjoyed being the most dominant country in the world for almost a century now. No one argues the supremacy, be it militarily or economically, of U.S. in present days. U.S. dominance is so overwhelming that almost nothing can restraint its will, case in point, the recent war without approval of U.N. A disturbing trend seems to be developing. An overconfident/arrogant international policy and a growing fascist domestic policy appear to be the image of U.S. government at this point in time. With every passing year, the government is doing more and more surveillance on the people, citizen and foreigners, without their knowledge and consent. The recent world events have escalated the situation. To be sure, the U.S. government was already on the path of slowly encroaching on privacy well before the events. But since 9/11, the citizens have willingly given up their resistance against the government’s encroachment on privacy in search for national unity and safety. They gave the government more power to prosecute foreigners and citizens accused of terrorism In the 1990s, as technology evolved rapidly the government has kept pace and tried to create new ways to surveillance using the evolving technologies. In addition to that, the government is seeking to find ways to break through encrypted data by asking software companies to allow build-in backdoors for the government to decode sensit... ...html Karen Tumulty and Viveca Novak, Goodbye, soccer mom. Hello, security mom. TIME Magazine. 2 Jun. 2003 ISSUE. Jack Ryan. McAfee broadens denial: No contact with government of any sort. Internet Security Review. 28 Nov, 2001. http://lists.insecure.org/lists/politech/2001/Nov/0109.html Bugbear worms threaten Internet. CNN.com/Technology. 08 Jun. 2003. http://www.cnn.com/2003/TECH/06/08/computer.worm/index.html Urge Congress to Stop the FBI's Use of Privacy-Invading Software. American Civil Liberty Union. http://www.aclu.org/Cyber-Liberties/Cyber-Liberties.cfm?ID=9958&c=58 John Leyden. Zimmermann defends strong crypto against govt assault. 10 Mar. 2001. http://www.theregister.co.uk/content/archive/22014.html Declan McCullagh, Lantern' Backdoor Flap Rages. 27 Nov. 2001. http://www.wired.com/news/conflict/0,2100,48648,00.html

My First Day at Work

Will Fu Interactive: Core Lab 1 February 2010 Interface, defined by the dictionary as a common boundary or interconnection between systems, equipment, concepts, or human beings. It is what allows two very different objects to share a connection. How can the word interface be applied to exhibits at museums? I quickly realized that answer after paying a visit to the American Museum of Natural History. At the museum, there are these galleries consisting of various taxidermies of animals. Each animal had its own display case and the case was decorated and painted to look as close to its natural habitat as possible. As I stop to look at these animals in their display cases and appreciate the work that the artists put in to emulate its surroundings, I began to feel as if I am in the plains of Africa, standing next to a zebra, or in the deep woods of the Rocky Mountains in front of a Grizzly Bear. I began to imagine what it would be like if I were actually at these places that these animals lived. Then as I walk into the oceanic section, they had the same setup for the marine life. There was this particular showcase that for some reason was so powerful to me that it sent chills down my spine. It was of a whale and a giant squid tangled in a deep-sea battle. The longer I stared at it the more I felt this battle was actually happening in front of me as if any moment, these two animals going to come to life. The reason I chose to talk about these animal showcases is because the way that it made me feel. The animals posed so naturally and the realistic installations served as an interface between me and the deep-sea animals and the wildlife of the jungle. I think these showcases are good examples of interface in museums because it helped me visualize what these places are like in real life.

Greek And Roman Mythology Essay

Divine Myth; †¢Ã¢â‚¬Å"True myths† or â€Å"myth proper†. Stories in which the main characters are super natural beings. Generally explain some aspect of the world †¢Example would be Zeus over throwing his father and the related stories; creation of myths and of the ancient greeks †¢Nyx (Night): the abstract concept of night given to a few human characteristics. Union of Nyx and Erebus (Darkness) produced their opposites, aether †Radiance† and herma â€Å"day† Legends (Sagas) †¢Latin word is Legenda â€Å"something that must be read†. Originated referred to Christian Stories of the saints. †¢Stories of great deeds from humans. (Semi-divine), usually narrates the events of the human past †¢Stories of the Trojan war and the exploits of Achilles and the other Greek heroes fit into this category. Troy and Legend †¢Heinrich Schliemann 1822-1890 †¢Believed that Homer’s stories about Troy were based on historical truth †¢Funded archaeological digs at Troy and later at Mycenae †¢Founded a huge horde of gold and jewels, â€Å"Priam’s Treasure† Folktales †¢Stories whose characters are ordinary people or animals; folk takes serve both to entertain and teach or justify. †¢Greeks had a work for folk talk, â€Å"Ainos† (Simple fable) †¢Hesiod Works and Days â€Å"The hawk and the nightingale† Motifs †¢Regular appearance of certain identifiable narrative patterns in a story †¢The modern novel we see the motif of water or light which consistently comes up n the story, serves as a thread running throughout †¢Simple motifs include; double (Twins, doppelgangers); dragons, etc Theories of Myth Allegory †¢Greek word meaning â€Å"say something differently† †¢Similar to symbolism Physical Allegory †¢THEAGENES (6TH CENTURY B. C. ) †¢First use of allegory to interpret myth †¢Myths about battles between gods really represented natural conflicts between natural  causes †¢Based his interpretations on opposites. †¢One god may represent fire and another water. Clashes represent eternal conflicts between fire and water False Etymologies †¢Means getting to the root of a word †¢Cronus (father of Zeus) †¢Greeks tried to relate Cronus to Crono (Time) †¢Cronus eats children (Time devours everything) †¢However Cronus and Crono are not etymologically related words Historical Allegory Euhemerism †¢An interpretation created by Euhemerus (ca 300 B. C. ) †¢Opposed to physical allegory, Euhemerism says myths tell us historical truths not philosophical truthsÃ'Ž †¢Gods are historical figures, human kings ruled long ago and were transformed into stories by gods †¢Related to Euhemerism and false etymologies is the idea that myths were formed by an understanding. †¢Actaeoniane are not torn apart by his dogs, but ruined by spending all his money on hunting dogs The Minoans †¢Ca 2200 B. C. E – ca 1450 B. C. E †¢Elaborate palaces; significant wealth and technology †¢Bull is an important religious symbol †¢Worshipped female fertility goddess †¢No defensive structures- mastery of the sea †¢Non Indo-Europeans †¢Non Greek Speakers (Linear A script not deciphered) Thera (Modern Santorini) †¢A rich Minoan culture that was destroyed ca 1630 BCE The End of the Minoans †¢ca 1450 B. C. E Minoan Civilization was destroyed and palaces burned †¢Palace at Cnossus Mycenaean †¢Ca 1600 B. C. E- 1150 B. C. E †¢Indo-European Greek Speakers (linear B script) †¢Mycenae’s ruled by powerful king †¢Warlike people- Bronze weaponry, chariots. †¢1150 B. C. E, palaces destroyed by fire. Linear B language lost for 400 years until Archeic Period †¢Re-emerged as Greek Alphabets Near Eastern Influence †¢Mesopotamia â€Å"Land between Rivers† (Tigris and Euphrates, modern Iraq) Important source for myths †¢Non Indo-Europeans speaking society. ( linguistic group than the Greeks) †¢Greek myths of the origin of the present world order, a universal flood and other myths show the influence of the near east. †¢Other important peoples that influenced Greek myth; Sumerians, Semites, Akk September 12, 2013 Creation Myths 1: Hesiod’s Theogony †¢Ca. 700 B. C. E †¢2 works survive intact (fragments of some of his other works are extent) †¢About the origin of the universe and the ascension of Zeus to â€Å"kings of the gods† †¢Works and Days: The account of the fall of man from a golden age to one of the iron †¢Elaborated on the personification of various aspects of life. Eg Gaea is the mother nature †¢Gaea is in pain because of Uranos’ hatred of their off spring †¢Uranos imprisons his youngest children to Tartarus †¢Succession myth (Uranos feared that his children would take his power away from him) †¢Gaea encourages Cronus to exact revenge †¢Cronus threw Uranos genitals into the sea, which gave rise to Aphrodite (God of love/sexuality) †¢The Giants (Erinyes, Furies) and Melian ash-tree Nymphs sprang from Uranos spilled blood †¢Cronus warned by Gaea (Mother) and Uranos (Father), would be afraid of their off springs †¢Cronos (Time) and Rhea had ; Zeus, Poseidon (Earth Shaker), Hades, Hera, Demeter, and  Hestia †¢Once born, Cronos eats his children to prevent from being overthrown †¢Rhea, advice from her parents hid her youngest child, Zeus on the island of Crete in a cave. †¢Rhea gave Cronus a stone in place of Zeus’s place †¢Zeus raised in a cave by nymphs and fed milk from the goat Amalthea and the honey from the bee Melissa †¢Protected by the Corybantes (Whirlers)/ Curetes â€Å"young men†Ã'Ž †¢Metis (Cleverness) give Cronus an emetic (causes him to vomit his sons and daughters) †¢The stone become the famous omphalos placed in Delphi (Center of the earth) †¢Rhea and Cronos, and Gaia and Uranus  The Titanomachy (War against the Titans) †¢Titans led by Cronus, Olympians led by Zeus †¢Some of the Cyclopes and the Hecatoncheires (the â€Å"Hundred-handers†) helped Zeus. The Cyclopes fashioned Zeus’s thunderbolt. †¢Eventually the Olympians won †¢Zeus banishes Cronus to Tartarus, along with the other Titans where they are watched by the Hundred-handers †¢The women were neutral, they were not banished. Epimetheus, Prometheus, and Atlas were spared. †¢Atlas’s punishment was that he had to hold up the sky at the edge of the world Typhoesus/Typhons/Typhus †¢Typheous is the youngest son of Tartarus and Gaea  Ã¢â‚¬ ¢He was so terrifying that the Olympian gods fled to Egypt and disguised themselves as animals. †¢In a fierce battle (hurled, torn to sinews) Zeus defeated Typheous- Mt. Etna(Typheous was being held down there) †¢Dragon combat motif (Characteristics where they are born inside the earth) (Dragons represent feminity; Zeus represents masculine values Birth of Athena †¢Zeus escapes the pattern of the succession myth (overthrown) †¢Zeus has married Metis and she was pregnant †¢Zeus swallowed Metis (Assimilated intelligence into himself) †¢Gave him a headache (Cracks his skull into allowing Athena to come out of his head) †¢One of Zeus’s favorite children Gigantomachy †¢Not mentioned by Hesiod †¢Giants were urged to attack Olympus †¢Another test of Zeus’s powers †¢The Olympians defeat the Giants, in a great battle. †¢Zeus, Poseidon and Hades divide the world among themselves †¢Prophecy of the son of a mortal mother; Hercules. (Was the hero Zeus needed to defeat the giants) †¢Giants urged to attack by Gaea Creation Myths 2: The Fall of Man The Punishment of Prometheus †¢Prometheus cultural hero (Gives mortals a chance) †¢Said to be the creator of humans †¢Prometheus tricked Zeus at Mekone unto reserving the edible parts of the sacrifice for humans  Ã¢â‚¬ ¢Gods get the bones and fat †¢Etiology (Explains the reason) Greek sacrificial custom †¢For the trick, Zeus punishes the humans (Withholds the fire) Prometheus and Fire †¢Prometheus steals the fire back from heaven in a fennel-stalk †¢Punishment for this trickery Zeus sends Pandora to men and chains Prometheus, years later freed by Hercules. †¢Prometheus gets a visitation from an eagle every day to peck out his liver Pandora (All gifted) †¢Name means â€Å"all-gifted† because of all the gods contributed to her creation and endowed her with many charms. †¢Hephaestos- Fashions her from the earth †¢Athena- Gives her domestic skills. †¢Aphrodite- gives her grace, beauty, desire and the ability to spark sexual longing †¢Graces and Persuasion: Necklaces †¢Epimetheus (after thought) is told by his brother Prometheus (fore thought) to not accept any gifts from Zeus †¢He sees Pandora and accepts Pandora †¢She carries a JAR ( not a box) †¢In the jar, it contains all the evil and good things †¢When she opens the jar, all the evil things fall to earth while the good things fly to heaven/ †¢Only â€Å"hope† is caught in the jar 4/5 Ages of Men; Hesiod’s Works and Days and Ovid’s Metamorphoses Ovid †¢43 B. C. E – 17 B. C. E †¢Works include Art of Love and the Metamorphoses. †¢Exiled by Augustus Zeus : Father of Gods and Men †¢Derived from the Indo-European Sky God: di-cf. Germanic Tiu and Indic Dyaus Ritar – Roman Jupiter †¢Ã¢â‚¬Å"Cloud Gather† †¢Aegis bearing Zeus – â€Å"Goat Skin† a magical object that represented Zeus power, it often represented as a shield with snake headed tassels. Zeus lent it to Athena †¢Many Lovers: (Eurynome (Graces); Mnemosyne (Muses): Ganymede (cup-bearer to the gods): Themis (rules and order) †¢Many offspring (Sarpedon, Zeus’s Son, Minos’s brother; Moerae â€Å"fates†: Clotho â€Å"spinner†, Lachesis â€Å"apportioner† and Atropos â€Å"she who cannot be turned aside†; Horae â€Å"Seasons†. †¢Zeus is renowned for his physical strength which guarantees his preeminence over all beings †¢Signature weapon which was the Lightning Bolt; Zeus Kataibates – â€Å"Zeus who descends† †¢Zeus is associated with the bull (Crete, power, fertility) and the Eagle †¢God of law and justice Dike- from the root â€Å"to point out† †¢Xenia (Formal guest friendship) cf. Xenophobia †¢As â€Å"The father of gods and men†, Zeus is a figurative father who oversees all that occurs on earth and in the heaven. †¢Literal father to a large number of gods and heroes- famous for his numerous consorts and paramours. 114 at some counts. †¢Sexual procreation as a metaphor for agricultural production- rain; semen, earth- the womb †¢Famous story from IIiad associates Zeus’s exploits and the growth of vegetation – Aphrodite’s girdle/belt (a symbol of sexuality and sexual consent) & Hera’s use of it leads to grasses, flowers and plants springing from the earth on which they reclined. Hera: Who sits on a Golden Throne †¢Hera (Juno) †¢Zeus’s wife †¢Marriage and child birth †¢Mother of Ares (by Zeus), Eileithyia, Hebe(personification of youth) & Hephaestus (Crippled and made fun of ) (Two versions of parentage) †¢Persecutes Zeus’s mistresses and illegitimate children. †¢Quarrels with Zeus incessantly †¢Seduces Zeus to turn tide of the Trojan War – Zeus; â€Å"remember when I strung you up†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Poseidon: Dark-Haired Lord of the Deep †¢God of the sea and earthquakes †¢Associated with the horse (drowned in a pool to sacrifice to Poseidon) †¢Produced Pegasus with the Gorgon Medusa (grotesque offspring: Polyphemus) Hades :Pluto’s â€Å"Wealthy One† †¢Name means â€Å"invisible† – unseen dead and the facelessness of death (Helm of invisilibty) †¢Never willingly allows anyone who comes to his â€Å"house† to leave †¢An immortal god but not an Olympian. Apollo †¢Origin of Apollo unknown; Lycian = Lycia (Asia Minor)? Or association with Hyperborean ( 3 Winters mos. In the far north)= Nordic Origin? †¢Born on Delos ( Floating island – Hera’s persecution of Titaness Leto â€Å"light of day† †¢Artemis is his twin sister †¢Depicted as a physically perfect young man and un-bearded and with long hair. †¢God of music, aristocratic concerns and light (later came to be associated with the sun) †¢God of illness (arrows- â€Å"Lord of mouse†, they bring disease) and healing (Asclepius, his son was the god of medicine) †¢God of prophecy; killed Python to establish his Oracle of Delphi (Dragon-combat: cf. Marduk vs Tiamat and Zeus vs Typhoeus)- shaman. †¢Known for his unhappy loves: Daphine, Cassandra, Sibyl at Cumae, Coronis (Asclepius Mother) Hermes; Psychompus; Mercury (Soul guide, or the leader of the souls) †¢God of travel, commerce, boundaries, theft and trickery (God that was worshipped from the thieves and bandits, and try to trick people) †¢Messenger to the gods (Called quicksilver because he was fast) †¢Important myths: Births, Invention of Lyre( by killing and gutting a Tortoise), Killing of Argus (Monster with 100 hundreds, watcher of 1 of Zeus’s lovers) †¢Worshipped as a Herm at crossroads and even doorways †¢Zeus had an affair with a star, and Hermes was born. Pan †¢Son of Hermes †¢Hoofs and legs of a goat with human features †¢The god’s name is likely from Indo-European root meaning â€Å"to feed† (cf Pasture) †¢The inspiration for later representations of the devil Hephaetus, God of Smiths †¢Lame smith god- highly skilled and ingenious †¢2 versions of his birth: Born from Hera alone (b/c of Athena) or son of Zeus and Hera †¢2 versions of expulsion from Olympus: Zeus threw him off for taking Hera’s side in an argument(landed on Lemnos); or Hera threw him from Olympus in disgust (Hephaetus’ golden throne of revenge and his subsequent return to Olympus) †¢Typhoeus’s jailer in Mt. Etna †¢Husband of Aphrodite (Ares & Aphrodite trapped in bed) â€Å"Hateful† Ares (God of War) Aphrodite, Artemis, and Athena Sept 24 †¢Aphrodite â€Å"Of the Golden Daughty† †¢Goddess of Love †¢Born from sea-foam (ophros)- Hesiod (Roman: Venus †¢Always accompanied by Eros (Winged boy with bow and arrows or flaming torch) Also Himmeros= desire and the Graces) †¢Only Athena, Artemis and Hestia (Virgins for life, did not want to endeavor into Aphrodite’s powers) were immune to Aphrodite’s powers †¢Not originally Greek (cf. Eastern fertility goddesses, Inanna, Ishstar, Astarte)- Cyprus (transit point) â€Å"Cypris† & â€Å"Cythera†. Cyprus is the doorway between the East and the west †¢Temple prostitution (Corinth & Cythera) Important Myths †¢Birth (theogony) †¢Hermaphroditus (fused with Nymph Salmacis, became both genders by fusing with him) †¢Priapus (Dionysus or Hermes)- Boned †¢Aphrodite & Ares-Boned †¢Aphrodite & Anchises (Aeneas; lone survivor of the Trojan War)-Boned Artemis Potnia Theron †¢Mistress of Animals †¢Not a Greek Name- earlier (possibly as far back as the Paleolithic Period) †¢Twin sister of Apollo (Roman: Diana) †¢Virgin goddess, but alluring (dangerous) †¢Huntress (bow and arrows, deer) †¢Ã¢â‚¬Å"Struck by the arrows of Artemis†. †¢Scared animals include the bear – (Braurania ritual and the Arktoi- â€Å"little bear†) Important Myths †¢Iphigenia (Sacrifice) Daughter of the great Greek general †¢Niobe (Boast about having more kids than Leto) Leto ask Apollo and Artemis to honor †¢Orion (constellation) tried to rape Artemis and Artemis put a scorpion on his head and he died. †¢Actaeon (Human Sacrifice? ) Turned into a Stagg because he saw Artemis nude. Then Actaeon’s dogs killed him Athena â€Å"Mistress of the City† †¢Takes her name from the city of Athens ( Not the other way around) †¢Roman: Minerva †¢Associated with the owl (owl-eyed). †¢Often represented with the helmet, shield and spear, wears the Aegis around her shoulders †¢Goddess of war (justified, defensive, strategic) †¢Goddess of domestic crafts ( especially weaving) Important Myths †¢Birth †¢Contest with Poseidon †¢ BIRTH OF ERICHTHONIUS (1ST KING OF ATHENS) HEPHATUS JIZZED ON ATHENA’S HIPS AND SHE wiped it off and she threw it off the ground on Athens and spawned the legendary king Erichthonius, he was snaky because he spawned in the earth †¢Arachne (Athena turned her in a spider) She weaved something that made fun of the gods. Athena slashed her face. She then committed suicide. Athena felt sorry for her  suicide and turned her into a spider September 26, 2013 Demeter †¢Meter means â€Å"mother†, De- unknown meaning †¢Greek Goddess most closely associated with the great mother-goddess †¢Goddess of grain and the harvest †¢Story of Demeter and Persephone comes from the Homeric Hymn to Demeter †¢Close association between the female, the underworld and the cyclical nature of existence †¢Demeter’s daughter by Zeus is Persephone, also known as Kore—Daughter or girl †¢D. and P. are often called â€Å"the two Demeters† or â€Å"the two goddesses†. The rape of Persephone †¢Persephone is taken to the underworld with Zeus’s permission- cf.marriage in ancient Greece †¢Persephone picked flowers as Hades arose from the depths to abduct her †¢Only Hecate and Helius heard her cries †¢Finally, Demeter heard her daughter’s cries and searched the entire earth for her Demeter’s Search †¢Nobody mortal or immortal would tell Demeter what happened †¢She wandered the earth for nine days with torches in her hands †¢Refused to eat ambrosia or drink nectar and did not bathe †¢Hecate finally told Demeter part of the story and then Helius filled in the rest †¢In disguise, Demeter left Olympus and descended to the towns and cities of men where she eventually came to Eleusis (Town outside Athens, center of the Eleusinian Mysteries) The Eleusinian Mysteries †¢At Eleusis, Demeter rested at the â€Å"Well of the Maiden† where she was approached by the daughters of Eleusis’ king Celeus †¢They asked where she was from and offered her hospitality †¢They hired Demeter as a nanny to their mother, Metaneira’s child, Demophoon †¢Lambe tries to entertain Demeter by telling her dirty jokes †¢Metaneira offered Demeter, Kykeon, as barley-drink †¢Demeter tried to repay their kindness by making Demophoon immortal. (Demeter would take the baby and put him in the fire, burning away his mortality). †¢Eventually, Celeus decreed a glorious temple be built in honor of Demeter. Tough Times for Humanity †¢In anger over her daughter’s abduction, Demeter withdrew all agriculture from the earth †¢Zeus demanded that Demeter relent but she refused. †¢Zeus sent Hermes to Hades to convince him to release Persephone and he agreed (etiological myth re: seasons). The Epic of Gilgamesh and Heroic Myth Oct 1 †¢Legends are stories about exceptional humans doing exceptional things which are said to narrate episodes from the human past- heroes. †¢Heroes were noble or well-born, originally living and breathing people-Homeric kings  and warriors. †¢Eventually these great individuals came to be worshipped as powers dwelling beneath the earth †¢The name of places of the individual’s cult where they were worshipped, were called Heroa †¢Heroa were often huge earthen mounds visible on the landscape for great distances eg Achilles at Troy’s Pelops at Olympia and Aenea’s near Rome. The Epic of Gilgamesh and the Heroic Pattern †¢Few ancient cultures produced heroic myths; however the Mesopotamians and Greeks did †¢The Epic of Gilgamesh greatly influenced later Greek heroic myth(movement of ideas from the East to West in Archaic period) †¢Gilgamesh was a real man who rules the Sumerian City of Uruk c 2600 B. C. E (cuneiform lists of kings) evidence that heroes likely lived at one time. †¢This influence on Greek heroic myth is shown by shared motifs: Shared Motifs †¢One of the hero’s parents may be divine (eg Gilgamesh) but he is like all humans, destined to die. †¢Miraculous or unusual birth of which we know little (Part is missing from the Epic Gilgamesh) †¢Hero is outstanding in his strength and is a menace to those around him, friend, and foe alike. †¢Hero has a male companion (Enkidu created by the gods from clay to temper Gilgamesh’s spirit) †¢Hero falls under enemy power and is forced to complete impossible tasks (eg. Kills Humbaba) †¢Taboo broken by hero, terrible price demanded (Enlil the storm-god was angry that Gilgamesh and Enkidu killed Humbaba) †¢Hero resists the temptations of a dangerous woman (Ishtar asks her father Anu to send Bull of Heaven) †¢Hero responsible for friend’s death (Enkidu dies after he and Gilgamesh kill Bull of Heaven – cf. Patroclus & Achilles) †¢Hero goes on a quest to defeat death; even traveling to the underworld (Gilgamesh travels across the waters of death to see Utnapushtim (cf. Ziusudra, Atrahasis, Noah, Deucallion) †¢Has help of gods, spirits, or magical objects (Gilgamesh magical stilts/poles) †¢Hero returns home, atones for his misdeeds and accepts his mortality (after failing twice to achieve immortality- unable to stay awake for 7 days, loss of prickly herb at the bottom of the sea) †¢Hero given a great reward (Gilgamesh honored by people of Uruk) †¢Hero given a great funeral and may become a god (Gilgamesh given a fine funeral and his memory will never die) Rationalism and Allegory †¢THEAGENES (6TH CENTURY B. C. E) THEORIZED THAT BATTLES BETWEEN THE GODS REPRESENTED clashes between natural elements (e. g in the Lliad 20.54ff Apollo (representing fire) fights Poseidon (water) †¢Cronus is identified with time ( Cronos)- all things are begotten by time and devoured by it as well, just like Cronus’s children. Because of this false etymology, we still envision Father of time as the grim-reaper (with sickle) on account of Cronus’s castration of his father †¢Another false-etymological example stems of Hera sounding like the Latin word for â€Å"air†, â€Å"Air† lay just beneath the upper-atmosphere. Or â€Å"aether† ie. Jupiter/Zeus lays just about Juno/Hera. Historical Allegory †¢Euhemerism: myths reveals a historical truth (Euhermerus wrote of a golden column  inscribed with the names with early human kings) †¢The conflicts between Uranus, Cronus and Zeus were representative of palace intrigues †¢During his reign Zeus traveled the earth teaching the arts of civilization, banning cannibalism, and founding temples. Died on Crete after a long life †¢Gods may have been kings and heroes of real men who founded cities and did great deeds. Moral Allegory †¢The interpretation that a myth is a system of advice on good and bad behavior †¢Eg. Daphine was an example of chastity and Harpies who steal men’s food are really prostitutes who ruin men with their fees. †¢When Paris gives his famous judgment, he is really choosing between 3 kinds of life: active (Hera), contemplative (Athena), amorous (Aphrodite) which all men must choose. Perseus and the Myths of the Argive Plain †¢Rich Bronze Age area †¢Tiryns- Perseus was the king of Tiryns when he founded Mycenae †¢Argos not important in the Bronze Age, but is often confused in the myth with the Mycenae which was The Wanderings of Io †¢The River god Inachus and Melia- parents of Io †¢Io – ancestor of 3 great dynasties: the houses of Argos, Crete & Thebes †¢Zeus’s passion and Hera’s jealousy (spots mysterious clouds) †¢The â€Å"cow†, Hera took her and takes the cow puts a monster to watch her, so Zeus doesn’t see her again †¢Argus (Hundred Eyes) †¢Hermes (Argeiphontes; Killer of Argus) †¢Ionian Sea, Byzantium- the Bosporus â€Å"cow-missing†, the Caucasus Mountains(Meets Prometheus; things will get better), Egypt (Regains human form) †¢Gives birth to Epaphus â€Å"he who has been touched† Crimes of the Danaids †¢Epaphus + Memphis (name of the ancient Egyptian capital, daughter of the Nilus the Nile River)= Libya (country west of the Nile river in North Africa) †¢Libya + Poseidon are parents of †¢Agenor (Ancestor to the houses of Crete and Thebes)(Arabia) †¢Belus (ancestor of Perseus & Royal house of Argo, means â€Å"lord† in Semitic language)(Libya) Crimes of the Danaids †¢Aegyptus has 50 sons †¢Danaus has 50 daughters= the Danaids †¢They flee to Argos to prevent proposed marriages (feared a takeover of Libya) †¢The sons of Aegyptus eventually marry to Danaids†¦. (Danaus gives all his daughters daggers to kill every husband) †¢Only Hypermnestra spared her husband Lynceus- â€Å"all but one† motif †¢All the daughters/Sisters were doomed on the underworld, they had to fill a jar that would never fill The Legends of Perseus Danae and the Shower of Gold †¢Lynceus (the one sparred) in Argos after Danaus. †¢His sons Abas has twins ( hate each other-quarreled in womb cf. Jacob & Esau and Isis, Osiris & Seth) †¢Acrisius has a daughter, Danae but wants sons (Heirs) †¢Oracles say that Danae will have a son, but that he will kill his grandfather (Acrisius) (Forbidden to Marry- prohibition) †¢Acrisius builds underground bronze chamber to imprison Danae (folktake; Seclusion) †¢Zeus â€Å"shower of gold† impregnates her (Folktale motif: violation of prohibition. Heroic motif: extraordinary birth) †¢Perseus and Danae set adrift in a wooden box (folktake motif: threat of death) †¢Dictys (â€Å"netman†) at Seriphos saves Danae and Perseus (folktale motif: liberation). †¢Dicty’s brother Polydectes (â€Å"much-receiver†, the king of Seriphos) demands Danae’s hand in marriage †¢Perseus tricked into going on a quest for the head of a Gorgon: he had no horse as a wedding gift for Polydecates- Perseus boasts â€Å"I will bring anything, else Polydecates wants, even a Gorgon’s head (Heroic motif: hero falls under enemy power and is forces to complete impossible tasks) Perseus, the Gorgon Slayer †¢Gorgons: †¢Stheno †¢Euryale †¢Medusa (The only mortal Gorgon) †¢Instructions from Athena: find the Graeae â€Å"grey-haired women† and learn whereabouts of helpful Nymphs (grabs eye, demands answers – â€Å"where are they†). †¢Perseus receives magical objects from the Nymphs: Hade’s cap of invisibility, winged sandals; special pouch. Hermes also provides a sword and a polished bronze shield (Heroic motif: has the help of the gods, spirits, or magical objects) The killing of Medusa †¢Uses shield as a mirror to avoid the gaze of the Gorgons, sneaks up on Medusa and cuts off her head †¢From the body of Medusa, who was at the time pregnant by Poseidon †¢Pegasus (Later tamed by Bellerophon) †¢Chrysaor †¢Puts his head in pouch, flies off with winged sandals with the Stheno and Euryale in pursuit (can’t see him with the cap of invisibility). †¢Perseus free’s his mother by showing the Medusa’s head to Polydecates Perseus and Andromeda †¢A variant has Perseus returning to Seriphos after a few adventures †¢Came to Joppa (near Modern Tel Aviv) ruled by Cepheus †¢Cepheus’s daughter, Andromeda, is about to be sacrificed to a sea monster, because of a rash boast by her mother, Cassiopeia (more beautiful than the Nereids) †¢Perseus given Andromeda’s hand in marriage and the kingdom for having freed her †¢Phineus (Cepheus’s brother) to whom Andromeda has been betrothed, bursts in a banquet in Honor of Perseus and is turned into stone with his men by the head of Medusa. †¢Perseus stays in the East for a year and gives birth to Perses, ancestor to the Persian people. The Death of Acrisius †¢Wanting to meet his grandfather Perseus returns to Argos †¢Acrisius flees (it is fated that Perseus will kill him) †¢At a sports contest in Thessaly, Perseus accidentally kills him with a stray discus (Motif: heroes can be a threat to civil society, even without meaning harm) †¢Ashamed to receive the kingdom from his death grandfather, Perseus trades Argos for Tiryns with Megapenthes (cousin) †¢Perseus also builds Mycenae (rules, begets dynasty) and lives there with Andromeda for  many years. At their deaths, Athena placed them among the stars as constellations, remembered forever. Heracles Oct 8 †¢Herakles Alexikakos (Wards off evil) †¢Obscure origins- Argive plain? (Eurystheus) or Thebes? (Birth place). Belong to all Greeks †¢Associated with an earlier time – club, bow & arrows †¢Excessive (Heroic) †¢Shaman figure- â€Å"Master of Animals† provided food and protection to his people †¢Heraclids (Dorians/Spartans) †¢Perseus’s granddaughter is Alcmena, wife of Amphitryon †¢While Amphitryon (H’s stepdad) was off fighting pirates, Zeus disguised himself as Amphitryon. †¢As Zeus leaves, the real Amphitryon appears †¢In his way, Alcmena gave birth to a child of Zeus (Herakles) and of Amphitryon (Iphicles) †¢HERA IS NOT HAPPY†¦ (TRICKS ZEUS INTO SWEARING HIS 1ST OFFSPRING BORN THAT DAY WOULD RULE. Hera’s delay tactics- Eurystheus (Perseus’s descendent, Heracle’s cousin) born before Herakles. †¢Received an aristocratic education (wrestling, archery, warfare, playing lyre†¦ Kills Linus for telling Herakles that he is bad at playing the lyre (poor linus) †¢Herakles sent away to tend cattle in the mountains cf. cattle of Geryon- Herakles as master of animals. †¢Hunted a lion (Ravaging flocks) for king Thespius of Thespaie by day, stayed at his house by night (50 daughters-Heraclids, sons of Heracles, founded the noble family of the Spartans) †¢Herakles marries Megara daughter of Creon (King of Thebes) and has 3 children †¢Goes mad and kills his family (driven insane by Hera; he believes that they are his enemies) †¢Went to Delphi to learn what he must do to atone for his crime- must leave Thebes, go to Argive plain serve Eurystheus (Herakle’s cousin, king of Mycenae) †¢12 Labors †¢Miasma is that his blood is tainted and his blood his contagious. ( blood guilt) Must be purified by a God. †¢12 LABORS. 1ST LABOR, FACES A MONSTROUS LION; SKIN THAT IS IMPENETRABLE. NEMEAN LION. Wrestles with the lion and kills him. Use’s the lion’s claws to skin the lion. Wears the skin †¢2ND HERAKLE SLAYS THE HYDRA (OFFSPRING OF TYPHEOUS; GAEA) SIMILAR SITUATION WHERE THEY overcome the older generation. Herakle has help from his nephew, kills the Hydra by having his nephew torch the heads of which he cuts off, so they do not grow back. Hydra’s blood is poisonous, arrows dipped in it. †¢3RD HERAKLES AND ATHENA WAS TO CAPTURE THE GOLDEN HIND OF CERYNEIA WHO IS SCARED TOArtemis. By taking the stag when it was asleep. Told Artemis on the way back that he had to. †¢4TH TOLD TO RETRIEVE THE GIRDLE OF HIPPOLYTA FROM THE AMAZONS. IT IS TO EXERT SEXUAL dominances. †¢5TH HERAKLES TOLD TO BRING THE ERYMANTHIAN BOAR TO EURYSETHUS WHO HIDES IN PITHOS. (Eurysethus is scared and builds himself a jar to hide from) †¢6th Mares of Diomedes 4 man eating horses who were owned by Diomedes. In the end he fed Diomedes to his mares because the mares kill his favored companion Abderus †¢7TH TRIPLE BODY GERYAN, THE CATTLE’S WHERE HE KILLED GERYAN AND HIS BROTHER WHO GUARDED the cattle. Eurytheus sacrificed the cattle to Hera. †¢8TH APPLES OF HESPERIDES (WEDDING GIVES TO HERA WHEN SHE MARRIED ZEUS) THESE APPLES ARE immortal. They are grown on the edge of the world. Atlas taunt’s Herakle’s with the Apples of the Hesperides. Herakles took the world on his shoulder. Atlas gets the apples, Herakle’s trick Atlas by telling Atlas to hold the world while Herakle’s adjust his neck. Atlas takes the world, and Herakle takes the apples from him. †¢9TH CERBERUS IS HADE’S HOUND OF HELL. HE MAKE SURE YOU NEVER LEAVE HELL. DRAGS BACK THE hounds of hell †¢10TH AUGEAN STABLES; CLEANSES THE AUGEAN. IT IS A BIG STABLE, STABLE OF 1000 DIVINE CATTLE’S that poop a lot. Re-routed a couple of rivers and flush the stables out. †¢11TH HERCULES WAS TO DRIVE AWAY AN ENORMOUS FLOCK OF BIRDS WHICH GATHERED AT A LAKE NEAR the town of Stymphalos. Hercules had no idea how to drive the huge gathering of birds away. The goddess Athena came to his aid, providing a pair of bronze krotala, noisemaking clappers similar to castanets. These were no ordinary noisemakers. They had been made by an immortal craftsman, Hephaistos, the god of the forge. †¢12TH LABOR; HERCULES EASILY DISPOSED OF THE CRETAN BULL. BRINGS THE BULL BACK TO EURYTHEUS. King Midas was to sacrifice whatever animal that the Poseidon sent. The god sent a bull so beautiful that he couldn’t. Made the bull rampage all over Crete and made Midas’s wife fall in love with it, making the Minotaur. He put the Minotaur in the labyrinths, feed’s him with the prisoners of Athens. After the Labors †¢Wished to merry Lole, daughter of Eurytus, a local king. He refused remembering Megara’s fate †¢Eurytus discovers 12 prize mares missing, sends Son to question Herakles- son is killed (violate of Xenia) †¢Herakles goes to Delphi to find out how to atone for crimes, Pythia refuses to respond. †¢Herakle steals tripod runs off and boasts that he will establish his own oracle! †¢Apollo prescribe 3 years as a woman’s slave (Omphale the Lydian queen) †¢Afterwards marries Deianaira â€Å"man killer† †¢Tricked by the centaur Nessus; told that his blood and semen would make potent love potion to use on Heracles. †¢The blood is poisoned by the Hydra blood used to kill him †¢Undergoes Apotheosis (became a god of Olympus) after his mortal self is killed by the poison †¢Hercale marries Hebe (personification of youth) after ascending to Olympus Oct 10 Athens and Theseus.

Stalins Rise to Power essays

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Basic Macro and Microeconomic Policies Assignment

Basic Macro and Microeconomic Policies - Assignment Example Cost extravagances in the airline industry had brought financial costs up decreasing profits but did not automatically mean an increase in sales. Accounting problems and financial data were overlooked or neglected during the dot-com bust. First, too much money was spent on advertising which focused on selling and not marketing. Second, too much advertising money could have been saved if ads were focused on market segments. Cost extravagances in the airline industry had brought financial costs up decreasing profits but did not automatically mean an increase in sales. First, too much money was spent on advertising which focused on selling and not marketing in both online and offline advertising(Churchill,1995). The prior selling attitude of companies as the strove to increase net profits had been to prioritize the seller’s aim to generate profits. The sad thing about this is that the customers’ needs and wants were put to second place or just simply not taken up. Thus, mo ney was spent paying computer programmers large sums of money to make websites that would catch the eyes of prospective computer users. To prove that this type of strategy to increase sales was effective, the companies targeted all computers users whether they were inside the United States or in the United Kingdom or elsewhere. Unfortunately, there is no logic that increased advertising on the internet will automatically translate to increased sales.

Who Has Had the Biggest Influence on You and Why Essay - 2

Who Has Had the Biggest Influence on You and Why - Essay Example My mother influences my life greatly. She holds a job that compels her to spend long hours at her workplace, thus gets home late in the night. However, she ensures that she spends quality time with her family. She wakes up when we wake up in the morning, regardless of the short time she gets to sleep. She prepares the entire family for their day, which makes her get quality time with her family in the morning. During this time, she enquires of any problems we could be facing, and she gives advice accordingly. Therefore, she gets to maintain close bonds with her family, despite her tight schedule. This motivates me to engage in as many activities as I can, so long as I manage my time wisely.  One of my friends was hospitalized at the end of last year. I organized a number of friends and we went to visit him at the hospital. He had been involved in a car accident that injured his head. I also took the opportunity to find out the state of the medical bill. Given a large amount of mone y involved, I proposed a scheme to raise money for the friend. The plan allowed us to seek help from friends and relatives, thus helping us to support our friend financially.  This happens many times when we meet with my friends to discuss various assignments that we have to complete to fulfill academic requirements. We form a group, and then give our various contributions to the issue in question. We use the available literature to help us manage the assignment, as well as the internet. Such groups make it easy to excel in school as the discussions enable an individual to complete their assignment accordingly.  I believe in the success of a consultancy business because it is not affected adversely by, such factors as economic downturns. Such a business involves giving advice to people in the various ways they can use to approach problems in their organizations, businesses, or even daily life.

5 friends ad Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

5 friends ad - Essay Example This article analyses how the producers of this advert use the ethos, logos, and pathos appeals in marketing their product. In addition, the article analyses the use of appeals such as the need for guidance, the need aesthetic sensations, and the need to feel safe in appealing to the emotions of the voters on the need to vote for their political leaders. Advertisers use ethos, which is the appeal to authority to convince the audience to use their product or service. Essentially, what appeal to authority does is that it relies on the credibility of the person presenting the message in the advert. Therefore, when advertisers make use of ethos in an advert, they are sure to incorporate influential personalities who are bound to convince the audience. The 5 friends advert is a star-studded affair which includes almost all American celebrities urging people to vote (5 Friends, 2014). According to Fowles, approximately 15% of every advertisement makes use of celebrities, particularly from the fields of entertainment or sports (87). The 5 friends advert features A-list celebrities such as Leonardo Di Caprio, Jamie Fox, Sarah Silverman, and Jonah Hill, among many others (5 Friends, 2014). Considering that the primary target for audience for his advert is the young generation, the presence of all these celebrities is a guarantee that many youths are bound to watch it. According to Fowles, producers are usually use celebrities in commercials in order to appeal to the need for aesthetic sensations which keep the audience interested in the advert (85). Accordingly, although the celebrities in the 5 friends advert are not experts in terms of politics, they influence most decisions made by young people. Since most young people look to these celebrities as heroes and role models, a product being advertised by them would most definitely sell. The use of

Who Has Had the Biggest Influence on You and Why Essay - 2

Who Has Had the Biggest Influence on You and Why - Essay Example My mother influences my life greatly. She holds a job that compels her to spend long hours at her workplace, thus gets home late in the night. However, she ensures that she spends quality time with her family. She wakes up when we wake up in the morning, regardless of the short time she gets to sleep. She prepares the entire family for their day, which makes her get quality time with her family in the morning. During this time, she enquires of any problems we could be facing, and she gives advice accordingly. Therefore, she gets to maintain close bonds with her family, despite her tight schedule. This motivates me to engage in as many activities as I can, so long as I manage my time wisely.  One of my friends was hospitalized at the end of last year. I organized a number of friends and we went to visit him at the hospital. He had been involved in a car accident that injured his head. I also took the opportunity to find out the state of the medical bill. Given a large amount of mone y involved, I proposed a scheme to raise money for the friend. The plan allowed us to seek help from friends and relatives, thus helping us to support our friend financially.  This happens many times when we meet with my friends to discuss various assignments that we have to complete to fulfill academic requirements. We form a group, and then give our various contributions to the issue in question. We use the available literature to help us manage the assignment, as well as the internet. Such groups make it easy to excel in school as the discussions enable an individual to complete their assignment accordingly.  I believe in the success of a consultancy business because it is not affected adversely by, such factors as economic downturns. Such a business involves giving advice to people in the various ways they can use to approach problems in their organizations, businesses, or even daily life.

Psychology Careers Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Psychology Careers - Research Paper Example He liked that idea too. Some of the questions were: Who is a substance abuse counselor? What is the qualification for being a substance abuse counselor? In what environment is the counseling conducted? Is it different from a general psychologist? If so, how? What are the usual practices of the substance abuse counseling? What typical challenges does a substance abuse counselor normally face and what is the best way to cope with them? What is group counseling and individual counseling? What is the average salary range for a substance abuse counselor? My cousin told me that an individual at least needs to have a BSc degree in Psychology in order to be a substance abuse counselor, and the average salary for a substance abuse counselor ranges from $40,000 to $50,000. The interview was conducted in his office that was at a distance of about a kilometer from my home. I met him at around 10 o’ clock in the morning. It had been 1 hr since he had started the duty. I entered the room. W e hugged each other since we were friends as well as relatives. There was no formality at all, yet I was prudent not to waste his time in any manner since he was on the duty and I had come to him with a business matter, and not for a personal reason. As I had already forwarded him the list of questions the print out of which he had in front of him on the table, he started to explain himself without having me bother to ask the questions. He replied every single question of mine while I was taking the notes, and was writing questions that were popping up in my mind from the discussion as I wrote. In the end, when he asked me if I had something else to ask him, I put forward all of those questions to which he promptly required. I thanked him, and wished him good-bye. I learned that a substance abuse counselor is an individual that helps people come out of their addictions. The interventions made by a substance abuse counselor may be staged. In other cases, counseling is offered to peop le who have yet to realize that their addiction is the root cause of a lot of troubles in their life. However, in most of the cases, substance abuse counselors offer counseling to the people who know that they are addicted and need treatment in order to come out of their problems before it is too late. A general psychologist deals with all areas of psychology whereas a substance abuse counselor specifically deals with patients that are addicted with a wide range of products. Sometimes, patients are addicted to alcohol, yet in a vast majority of cases the product is much more harmful than alcohol like Heroin, Codeine, Cocaine and Vicodin. The environment in which substance abuse counselors work is no less varying than the substances they have to provide the counseling for. Some counselors offer treatment in the very residence of the patient, while others may conduct the counseling sessions in offices, churches, or other community outreach centers (Jones, 2011). Thus, either a patient approaches the counselor or else, the counselor approaches patient. Counseling occurs either way as convenient to both the parties. The protocol that a substance abuse counselor mostly works in is established specifically for the treatment of addicts. A 12 Step Program is often used by the substance abuse counselors. Such programs are based upon twelve stages of treatment. Some of the most important of the twelve stages are â€Å"admitting powerlessness, turning to God, and making

Race and Ethnicity Essay Example for Free

Race and Ethnicity Essay Stereotypes have existed in a very long time, and almost everyone has stereotyped a person or has been considered as belonging to a particular group of stereotypes. But what is a stereotype actually? Stereotyping is a way to group races or individuals together and make a judgment about them, without even knowing them. It’s a belief about a certain social group or type of individuals. Stereotypes can be positive, however stereotypes are most often associated with negativity. Stereotypes often exist about cultures and countries as a whole, and it makes it easier to define a country or race, if you put them in specific groups. Almost every country or race has a stereotype. There exist infinitely many different stereotypes. As said before, they exist based groups and race, but also on gender and age. There are common stereotypes, which is about and between the cultures. Some common stereotype examples are, that all Asians have high IQs or black people are always connected to crime and violence. It’s grouping the race together saying that every Asian person is smart and every black person is criminal. Another type of stereotyping is the individual, which is about skaters, emos, gangsters and so on. Emos are stereotyped as being depressed people, who listen to sad music and cut themselves. Individual stereotypes are most between teenagers and in the schools, because younger people want to make one group or person superior and above another group or person. Stereotypes are not just about different races and backgrounds however. Gender and ago stereotypes also exist in our society. For example, if you say that men are better than women, you’re stereotyping all men and all women. The invention of stereotypes has come naturally though time. When we see persons we don’t know, we automatically begin to put them in different groups in our head. It makes us believe we actually know them better or know what type of persons they are. An example can be a person from the Middle East, because many people often connect them with only troubles and thefts. In that way we personally feel more safety, because then we might say to ourselves that we have to take care and be more careful about what to say so there won’t be any problems. On the other hand our thoughts about stereotypes aren’t always negative. We say that Italian are great cooks and make delicious food, which is a positive stereotype about Italy. ThereforeIda Jessen og Rikke Hemmingsen HH1C Silkeborg Handelsgymnasiet aren’t stereotypes the same as prejudices. Stereotypes are often exaggerated and funny and prejudices are only negative opinions about people and things. Stereotypes always appear negative in the medias. Again we’re comparing with the people from the Middle East. When there has been a crime and they’re talking about it in the medias, it has always been told loud and clear if it’s immigrates who had make a crime. On the other hand when it’s a local person, it has never been told. Therefore we actually compare stereotypes with only bad things, because that’s how it has been appeared in the medias and it affects us, but stereotypes are often fun.

Factors Affecting Global Advertising Strategies

Factors Affecting Global Advertising Strategies CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION This project will analyse how global advertising is affected by numerous problems and what global advertising strategies can be undertaken by multi-national companies. The project will start with an introduction to global advertising and related literature, theories which present the basis of the review. Then, the methods of collecting data and sources will take place such as how the data was gathered and evaluated. Furthermore, with analysis of all relevant outcomes, a conclusion will be drawn. The reason why Kinetic, Turkey, was chosen as a case study is because it has been operating as an advertising company in different countries under different names. In addition, advertising is facing many issues in Turkey and this will provide a better insight to the problems of international advertising such as how the company copes with these issues. Background In the global advertising phenomena, most businesses are keen to expand their brand of products into a market place that is becoming increasingly competitive, an unstoppable debate over the effectiveness of global advertising of products is still continuing. The idea began towards the late twentieth century and gained immense popularity among business communities as the sound of global recognition is a music to anyones ears. It does have some challenges for business men all over the world. Among them is the issue of language, culture to name a few (Andros, 2000). Global advertising involves distribution of a commercial message to target customers in other countries. Individuals differ from country to country which affects the way of how they recognize symbols, react to emotional appeals by considering the intensity of literacy and languages spoken. The structure of advertising function also shows difference. For instance, on the one hand, advertising decisions and budgets are centralized, and specific numbers of worldwide agencies are used by international organisations. On the other hand, organisations can decentralize the decisions and budgets and use the local advertising agencies. Therefore,global advertising is a communication process as a result of existing in different cultures that have different values, communication styles, and consumption patterns. Global advertising can be also seen as a business practice with advertisers and the advertising agencies which generate advertisements and buy media in other states Douglas Craig, (1995) . It is difficult to communicate to a target audience in global markets as communication process passes through in numerous contexts and it varies because of language, literacy, and other cultural influences. Douglas Craig, (2002) propose that there are three different stages are taken place in the process of the communication in global markets. First of all, the advertiser determines the appropriate message for the target audience. Then, to understand the message in different cultural contexts, it is encoded. Finally, the message is ready to be sent through the media channels to the customers who then interpret and respond to the message. However cultural factors can create barriers in these steps in the process of message and communication breaks may occur. Efficiency of message is affected by the cultural context. The context where information is implanted is significant in the collectivist cultures such as Japan and China (Hall, (1976). Conversely, the information is embedded in verbal messages in low context cultures such as Western societies where they only expect whether information relating to the product or service is enough to meet with their expectations for content (De Mooij, 1998). However, image and mood appeals affect individuals easily in high context cultures where they depend on personal networks for information and content. To provide effective communication, it is important to understand these differences in communication techniques. Global advertising can be also considered as business progress when a company introduce its product or services to customers in other countries. An appropriate message is determined by an advertising agency, which also build the media placement. While deciding global advertising strategy, awareness of developing an international or local ad campaign, or tailor communication to differences in home markets (Peebles and Ryans 1984). A standardized international campaign is often preferred to build a strong corporate or global image. Local campaigns are chosen if the purpose is to release a new product or build a new brand, or to differentiate the product or brand from competitors. In 2006, Coca-Cola Company failed when the company launched the campaign of Coke Side of Life, and it only provided simple messages with universal appeal. Coca-Cola used more regional approach rather than using a global marketing campaign (Summerfield, 2002). After this failure the organisation started to use its global resources to run a multi-media and multi-cultural strategy in worldwide markets. The firm has a better understanding of its local connections in which they market their products (Coca-Cola Company News Release, 2006). Altstie and Grow (2006) believes that there are many advantages of standardization. One of the main advantages of standardization is local marketplace. As a brand takes a part in the process of decision-making especially supported by local professionals then it will help to increase the level of local acceptance easily. Having looked at the advantages of standardization, the other effect of it can be observed as off-target advertisements always provide support when there meets an increase related to cultural approach. Moreover, Altstie and Grow (2006) mention it is clear to say that culturally respectful and strategically bound advertising can often be highly successful. Another advantage of standardization is abating the rate of making cultural blunders. When choosing an advertising firm to take care of global promotional needs, companies should consider: the available budget; the promotional message; the complexity of the product or service; market size and location; distribution channels; life cycle and competition (Proctor 2000, pp.227-228). It is vital to use an advertising agency which specializes in that type of campaign as the company operating global. McAllister (1997, p. 39) explains why it is more prudent to use global campaigns. There are many advantages of an international campaign such as building a strong and consistent global image for the company or its products and services across world markets and building awareness by using the same image in other countries. Moreover, utilization of a single campaign reduces the costs and productions in copy development. On the other hand, use of various regional campaigns may create repetition and lead to incoherent brand images and bewilderment in target audiences over the globe. To start with, it is essential to identify the term of global advertising, which has been used for advertising universal brands, such as Marlboro cigarettes, Coca-Cola, Sony home electronics and Gucci accessories. For instance, Jones (2000) argues that if a brand is exactly the same in every way in the countries where it is represented, then this term can be called as global. However there are numerous brands are available; the numbers of truly brands are not that many. For example, Coca-Cola and Pepsi frequently do with some a few changes to contain local norms, tastes, and preferences, but Levis jeans that are very much a global upon the country. In the current economic scenario, many economists as well as media people are predicting that a competition among businesses might resemble the initial stages of E-Commerce when it was not well known. There are pieces of research that have addressed the question of price rivalry on the Internet. Examine price patterns with the competition and their pros and cons for the customer segment, where do they excel and where do they lack in traditional bricks and mortar retail settings (Frasier, 2002) According to Keegan and Green, 2008, United States was the country where advertising industry spent $250 billion whereas they spent half a billion dollars for the world in 2003. In addition to this information, in total over a trillion dollars was spent for various kinds of promotions. The existing literature shows that General Motors spent only %2 of its sales for advertising while Unilever spent %3.2. However, 2 percent of total sales of General Motors which was equal to 3.7 billion dollars were more than double of Unilever expense. $1.6 billion spent for advertising by Unilever. As a whole, in 2003, nearly $100 billion was spent for advertising by the market leaders. However the following statistics shows that global advertising expenditures highly declined as a result of economic crisis. According to Zenith forecasts of 2006, the credit crunch has a negative effect on consumers and organisations in North America and Western Europe from 4.4% to 3.8%, however there is a growth in the rest of the world from 10.9% to 11.1%. TNS Media Intelligence states that U.S. total measured advertising spending dropped 14.3 percent vs. in the first six months of 2009 to $60.87 billion and advertising expenditures during the second quarter of 2009 which was less than last year. The only media increase was internet in the first half of 2009. Zenith forecasts (2006) showed that the top companies such as Verizon Communication, Procter Gamble, ATT, Sprint Nextel, Johnson Johnson, General Motors, General Electric, News Corp., Time Warner and Walt Disney in the first six months of 2009 spent combined total of $7,866.4 million, spending decreased by 3.5 percent compare to last year. As creating the multinational advertising campaigns, not only political and legal forces, but also economic factor needs to be taken into account. Definition of Problem With a better understanding of the adaptation of global advertisements to local environments, the factors which have influence on global advertisements and the strategies can be generated by global companies against to these barriers will be addressed. Aims and Objectives The project will analyse how global advertising is affected by language, culture, colours, numbers and images, religion, education, country image, political and legal forces, production and cost limitations, and global advertising strategies undertaken by multi-national companies. To come to the main point, one ad needs to apply to everyone and their understanding concurrently. The ultimate goal is the adaptation of a global advert which attracts customers attention to the highest point to generate the purchase process. In this study, the analysis of how effectively global advertising can be adopted by different and changing backgrounds in Turkey has been examined. Furthermore, how successfully advertising firms do research as well as market their product and services within other countries to expand globally will be taken into account. Structure of Study The research consists of five different chapters: Chapter 1 presents the background global advertising, and indicates aims, objectives and the structure of the study. This chapter also includes some relevant examples and judgments to the literature review. Chapter 2 provides review of relevant literature describing the challenges of global advertising with theoretical concepts and various examples of many organisations from books and journal articles. Chapter 3 contains the research and data collection methods in detail including both primary and secondary data as well as analysis of data and sampling methods. Besides, reasons of selected research methods and how they were used are explained. Chapter 4 gives a critical evaluation of data gathered from interviews with relevant justification, discussions and judgements. The aims and objectives set in the introduction have been addressed. Chapter 5 provides a summary of the main findings with conclusions and recommendations from both literature review and interview. Additionally, directions for the future study are indicated in this chapter. CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW Globalisation During the last decade, organisations have been launched internationally to expand the size of the business and survive in the competitive environment as a result of global competition and to gain global demand for their products. Globalisation has been defined as the homogenization of peoples wants and demands around the globe thanks to easy access of different products (Hammond, Grosse, 2003, p. 288). Organisations have expanded into different markets with the development of communication technology and the communication among countries has become easier for mass media via internet and satellite television broadcast. With high technology, managers can directly access the firms and solve any problem that might exist in other countries (Johansson, 2006). The usage of television increased during the entire world as governments discontinued attempting to prevent TV access from their population in many states; the images publicized in this medium have really introduced existing cultures around the globe such as the public in Japan, Argentina, and Canada. Moreover, the Internet has driven the globalisation of products by removing the barriers which formerly preventing products from gaining more recognition around the world. The physical limitations separating countries are breached as a result of Internet. However it has extended the worldwide scope of products, the global branding strategy should actually be a local plan for each component market, as to apply a standard approach worldwide without considering local preferences and cultural differences is doomed to failure (Dennis Harris 2002, p.142). Global organisations need to consider such as the available budget, the promotional message, the complexity of the product or service, market size and location, distribution channels, life cycle and competition when selecting an agency to heed on global promotional needs (Proctor 2000, p.227-228). It is prudent to select the advertising company which specialized in that type of promotion when the organisation is operating globally McAllister (1997, p. 39). Global Advertising Global advertising challenges with a difficult task. An appropriate communication needs to be for any local market as campaigns also must be organized and controlling of expenses must be provided across the world. As a result of varying media, there will be a change in the possible channels of advertising (Hammond, Grosse, 2003). For business expansion, corporations have to consider many factors. Among these factors, the top most are language, culture, education, politics as well as economic environment (William and Cummins, 2008). Corporations that have been successful in implementing their business have done a great deal of homework in this regard as we see on their websites which are available in many languages, they also analyze the appropriate market for their product and look at the political stability of that particular country in order to make sure that their business is conducted properly (Boris, 2001). This has specially been observed in telecom and computer sector where we can now see just how successfully that have implemented their strategies to cross all the above mentioned hurdles. The product must be within the reach of a common man and they must spend an appropriate amount on advertising as to get the masses interested. Hype must be created to grab even more attention and the price/performanc e ratio of the final product must be in equilibrium (James Badger, 2004). On the other hand they do adjust rather poorly in organizations that need to change. Compensations must only be based on performance and the size of job in hand that must be focused on more promotion and in future striving to get an even bigger job (Murphy et al., 2005). The above mentioned can only be extracted when the company management decides to make a great relationship with the workforce. They must make them feel so comfortable as if they are dealing not just with workers but their own family members. Just like we all work for the benefits of our very own families, similarly they must motivate employees to such an extent that they are able to handle virtually any challenge that lies in the way of their organization (Parker, 2002). But in order to achieve this, they will have to give additional benefits and rewards coupled with bonuses to their employees at regular intervals. As discussed above a factor that unfortunately even today is under use of many organizations, is the seniority factor where they encourage their employees on the basis of seniority rather than performance. Organizations have already begun the transition from relatively simple spreadsheets to the IT based database technology as this process has advanced along with the technology (Vein Heflin, 2008). They can also use their brand name if it is well known to consolidate the quality and customer satisfaction by increased funding on re-structuring the pricing policies as well as present some significant discounts and combine them with a proactive marketing campaign (Vein Heflin, 2008). Although in many countries global advertising can be considered homogenous or not, media tools provide an easy access to a part of the world. While social and cultural differences can pose problems, a simple image of the products can remain in individuals mind; they gradually begin to participate in the global market. The aims of advertising in each country have to be identified by the advertisers. Global advertising management should begin with the evaluation of the position of advertising in each market and the accessibility of the other advertising media. Similarities in Advertising Harris Attour (2003, p. 160) expounded that International advertising standardisation refers to using a common approach (for example common advertising message) to promote the same product across national boundaries. The similarities in advertising can be justified by the following: consistent image and identity throughout the world, single coordination of the marketing mix, and cost-savings; Consistent Positioning Worldwide By having similar advertising, organisations are able to show their consistency and maintain their brand image worldwide. Doing so prevents confusion and distortion of the way frequent travellers perceive brands In other words, the company gain in consistency because it carries the same image everywhere. Smirnoff launched its pure thrill campaign showing distorted images becoming clear when viewed through the Smirnoff bottle; however the specific scenes change from one country to another to appeal to consumers with different assumption about what is thrilling. (Kiefer Carter, 2005, p. 105) Writing instrument common theme stresses Parker and Pen as synonymous. Personalisation of the advertisement can be made at the local level but always with a common theme (Advertising Age, 1984, p. 74). Levis in the early 1980s opted for a pattern advertising strategy, where the broad outlines of the campaign are given but the details not (Chase Bacot, 1981, p. 34). Cost Savings Achieved Through Standardisation The potential for economy of scale achieved through standardization is enormous. Many companies have made huge savings thanks to standardization. In fact, by having one company to design the international advertising strategy, companies not only have a tighter coordination amongst brands but also achieve huge savings. Many companies have benefited from the cost savings potential of uniform advertising campaigns. Coca Cola saved $90 million over 20 years by using McCann-Erickson to produce its worldwide commercials (De Mooij, 1997, p. 15). Challenges in International Advertising It is true that advertising seems to be consistent worldwide, however As Omar (2009, p. 374) noted:Although advertising principles do not vary from country to country, the objectives and methods employed may differ in different markets. As Anholt (2000, p. 8) predicted, it is important for international brands to act locally: International brands succeed when consumers in each market believe they are being spoken to by somebody who understands them, somebody who knows their needs and who talks and feels just as they do . His words give rise to a lot of questions, chief amongst them are: The kind of advertising which would work best in each market environment, the kind of advertisement to be avoided (Zandpour et al, 1994, p. 50). Kotler (1997, p. 309) pointed out that international advertising present challenges at four levels: What to say (message content), how to say it logically (message structure), how to say it symbolically (message format), and who should say it (message source) ? The following paragraphs discuss them in turn. Language These days, organisations are paying great attention on product names and slogans to use in other languages. Language is the foundation to cross cultural advertising. Language must be carefully checked for cultural feasibility as many companies have made big blunders in advertisements of their products. (Payne, 2007). The message needs to be expressed in one language. International advertising often means that, companies are advertising a product which has a name from a different language. Many companies have had difficulties marketing these products mainly because once translated it does not convey the same impression. Firms therefore have skilled interpreters and translators to remove the communication difficulties. Direct translations into other foreign languages often lose meaning and do not put forward the important points originally predicted. Colgate launched toothpaste named CUE; they introduced the product in France and it was a disaster because the word CUE in French is a slang expression for derriere. (De Mooij, 1997, p. 160) Baby food producer Gerber does not make the right impact in France since the word literally means to spew (De Mooij, 1997, p. 145). Mitsubishi failed to advertise their Pajero model in Spain because the word Pajero means masturbator in Spanish: definitely not the right impression. (Haig, 2003, p. 45) IBM had some difficulties in Argentina with its global slogan: Solutions for a small planet and had to fine-tune it to Solutions for a small world because the word Planet lacked the desired conceptual thrust (Haig, 2003, p. 105). Values Culture might be linked to ethnics, national groups, and an age group or to a country. Every individual gains their knowledge about their culture from the society or the group they belong to. Every country has it is own culture, eating, dressing habits change between countries men and women are not treated same everywhere. Culture varies between different levels, so when talking about it, it is important to be clear about the level to avoid confusion. An approach that is true at one level does not mean it is going to be right on another level. Pivotal to the issues faced by international promoters, is the problem of culture: advertising is more than words, it is made of culture (Anholt, 2000, p. 5). In other words, the content of the message should have a local touch. Culture is the totality of socially transmitted behavior patterns, arts, beliefs, institutions, and all other products of human work and thought characteristic of a community or population. Culture is also learned behaviour. It depends on the environment, not heredity; it is not biologically transmitted. (Keillor et al.2007, p.109) In 1997, De Mooij (p. 7) wrote that, Ideally effective advertising means that the values in the message match the values of the receiver. It is the culture of the consumer that should be reflected in advertising. This excerpt puts a lot of emphasis on the values of the targeted nation. Before launching an advertisement it is important to see whether the message conveyed will match with the values of the nation. In other words, culture is a very complex phenomenon and a challenge to firms that wish to market internationally. How does the firms product or service fit in with the foreign markets culture? How must it be adapted to fit? Every firm must take its own adjustment and adaptation to satisfy customer foreign customers. (Keillor et al., 2007 p. 109) Culture plays an important role in international market. It is complex, challenging and always a problem for companies which operate internationally. When a new product is launched, it is the responsibility of the firm to make sure that the product fits in the international market. If there are changes required to increase customer satisfaction, the firm must take the reasonable steps. Advertising reflects these wider systems of meaning: it reflects the way people think, what moves them, how they relate to each other, how they live, eat, relax, and enjoy themselves. All manifestations of culture, at different levels, are reflected in advertising. In order to analyze advertising as a manifestation of culture at the broader level, it must be understood that culture is expressed in several ways. The Sony Walkman is often thought to be unique because one can listen to music without being disturbed by others. However this contrasts with Akio Morita Ibuka co-founder of Sony Corporation: He wanted to listen to music without disturbing others (Morita et al., 1987, p. 89). This subtlety makes a huge difference in the formulation of the campaign. Muller sparked a lot of controversy with its self-centred campaign showing a mum depriving its child of the yoghurt with the caption: there is motherly love, and there is Muller love. (Kiefer Carter, 2005, p. 68). Haagen-Dazs was lambasted because of its advertisement which related ice cream to sex and presented it as a product for personal pleasure. It offended the Chinese who share all the good things (Kiefer Carter, 2005, p. 68). Values bear hugely on buyer behaviour especially at the problem recognition stage. People in different cultures have different motives to buy a good and it should be reflected in the message of the campaign. When companies advertise, they must consider a wider system of meaning because it reflects people in many ways for example the way they eat, move or think. Advertising reflects to all cultural expressions at different stages. It is important to understand that the culture can be expressed in more than a few ways to analyze advertising as a manifestation of culture. Hofstede (1980, p. 57) proposed four dimensions of national culture: Power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism and masculinity. The model can be used in global marketing strategy. If culture has a large effect on customer behaviour, then firms need tools and techniques that analyze cultural differences, so that the firms can avoid the mistake of applying a policy which is not appropriate. Power distance is essentially used to categorise levels of inequality in organisations (Mullins, 2002, p. 25). High power distance countries are autocratic and in such countries, the employees are reduced to a mere condition of doers. Conversely, low power distance is favourable to a participative management. Uncertainty avoidance however, related to the tendency to minimise risks or ambiguous situations. Countries that score high in this area are risk-adverse, and they tend to follow proved methods and rely usually on bureaucracy. Individualism mirrors the extent to which individuals fitted in a group (Brewster, Sparrow, Vernon, 2007, p. 23). In other words, the cohesiveness amongst group members; countries with a high score can be branded egoistic and Nations with low levels of individualism are known for their social dimension. Masculinity is linked to the behaviour and patterns that prevail into a particular culture. In fact, a masculine oriented nation shines by aggressiveness, assertiveness, drive for succeed at all cost while a feminine orientation requires a much less nurturing approach. Later, an additional dimension, Confucian Dynamism (Bond, 1988, p. 8), was put forward. This dimension reflects the length of planning e.g. The Japanese plan for the long-term and this is the basis of their economic growth over the last few years. Conversely, the USA is short-term focused and the bottom line is generally the quarterly meeting. Hofstedes surveys which were carried around the world in 1980 with IBM employees was rather a methodical assessment of different cultures around the globe. Even though there has been changes in the world from the events that occurred in Eastern Europe and Russia cultural roots are much stronger. Hofstedes analysis has proved that countries can be explained in four different categories. The first one is individualism versus collectivism, in individualism cultures individual tend to look after themselves and close family members only in collectivism cultures individuals care more about the group. High and low power distance would be the second dimension the difference is countries with high power distance are less democratic and countries with low level of power distance are more democratic. Masculine and famine is the third on Hofstedes list which refers to equality between males and females in a society. Uncertainty avoidance which relates to self-assurance between individuals in a society is the last demission on Hofstedes list. If the society do not feel threatened from uncertainty avoidance, then that society is does not have any doubt about the future. The Role of Culture in Multinational Business Economic and physical environment are important to international firms but not as much as the cultural environment that has an exceptional importance in business. Because every country has a different culture they require a different approach. A strategy that is successful for a region might not be in another, to avoid failure right techniques and tools should be used. A company would be successful if they can manage the cultural environment and international organizations. So what kinds of problems arise from cultural diversity? The main problem seems to be the lack of knowledge about different cultures between individuals. Many companies are not clear about the cultures around the globe (Miroshnik, 2002). Cultural diversity causes problems, because firms usually over generalize techniques and strategies. Employees think that successful marketing strategies can be applied to more than one country, but this often results in failure. If a product has a naked image on the package, it may not be a problem in the western countries, but it will be highly criticized in Muslim world. It does not matter if it is a well-known art work or the companys logo, therefore firms must adapt well into local markets if they want to be successful (Miroshnik, 2002). Structure of the Message The structure of the message should be consistent with the culture. Hall (1976) argued that communication could take place in a high/low context. According to him, in low context communication there is the necessity to come up with all the background information. Conversely, high context cultures require a straight approach because everyone has all the background information. Because of the differences of context, Gudykunst Ting-Toomey (1988, p. 103) argued that there are fou